Design and Usability Evaluation of a VR Metaverse-Based Digital Signage Game for Tsunami Evacuation Training
Downloads
Objectives: This study aims to design, implement, and evaluate a VR Metaverse-Based Digital Signage Game for Tsunami Evacuation as an interactive medium to support disaster mitigation, particularly in improving user understanding and decision-making during evacuation scenarios. Methods/Analysis: The system was developed using a prototyping approach, enabling iterative refinement through continuous feedback. The evaluation employed multiple methods, including questionnaire-based assessment for digital signage effectiveness, Cognitive Walkthrough during the prototyping and refinement stages, and usability testing using VRSUQ on the final system. Furthermore, MSSQ was used to assess users’ susceptibility to motion sickness in immersive environments. Findings: The results indicate that the proposed system effectively supports users in understanding evacuation routes and making appropriate decisions in simulated disaster situations. The usability evaluation indicates that the system achieves an acceptable level of usability, particularly for users with limited prior VR experience. Novelty/Improvement: This study introduces a novel integration of digital signage within a VR metaverse environment for disaster mitigation training. It contributes a prototyping-based development framework and provides empirical insights into user interaction in immersive systems. The study also highlights opportunities for improvement, including simplifying interactions, improving navigation support, enhancing user onboarding, and reducing excessive simulation effects to improve the overall user experience.
Downloads
[1] Lasaiba, M. A. (2024). The Impact of Disaster Mitigation on Tourism Growth in Island Regions. Lani: Jurnal Kajian Ilmu Sejarah Dan Budaya, 5(1), 1–10. doi:10.30598/lanivol5iss1page1-10.
[2] BMKG. (2022). Statistics of Natural Disasters in Indonesia. Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika (BMKG), Jakarta, Indonesia. Available online: https://data.bmkg.go.id/gempabumi/ (accessed on May 2026).
[3] BNPB. (2020). Indonesia Disaster Annual Report 2020. Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana, Jakarta, Indonesia. Available online: https://dibi.bnpb.go.id/ (accessed on May 2026).
[4] Nugroho, E. C., Widarti, E., Pujisusilo, N. A., & Catur, B. A. (2021). Development of Digital Signage as a Digital Information Board Case Study: STMIK AUB Surakarta. Go Infotech: Jurnal Ilmiah STMIK AUB, 27(1), 33. doi:10.36309/goi.v27i1.142.
[5] Fachrurrazi, S., & Hizli, H. (2021). Digital Signage as an Information Service Media. Sisfo: Jurnal Ilmiah Sistem Informasi, 5(2), 10 29103 5 2 6226. doi:10.29103/sisfo.v5i2.6226.
[6] Matthews, B., Andronaco, R., & Adams, A. (2014). Warning signs at beaches: Do they work? Safety Science, 62, 312–318. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2013.09.003.
[7] Shibata, M., Peden, A. E., Watanabe, H., & Lawes, J. C. (2024). Do red and yellow flags indicate a danger zone?: Exploring Japanese university students’ beach safety behaviour and their perceptions of Australian beach safety signage. Safety Science, 178, 106606. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106606.
[8] Yasufuku, K., Akizuki, Y., Hokugo, A., Takeuchi, Y., Takashima, A., Matsui, T., Suzuki, H., & Pinheiro, A. T. K. (2017). Noticeability of illuminated route signs for tsunami evacuation. Fire Safety Journal, 91, 926–936. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.04.038.
[9] Suprastayasa, I. G. N. A., Sunarsa, I. W., Darmaputra, P. G. E., Wiryanata, I. G. N. A., & Rusdiarnata, K. (2025). Evaluating Hazard Public Signs at Nusa Penida Tourist Sites for Visitor Safety. TRJ Tourism Research Journal, 9(2), 255. doi:10.30647/trj.v9i2.293.
[10] Zhang, M., & Liu, L. (2026). Incorporating safety signs in risk evaluation for tourist-construction interactions in a scenic area renovation project. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 33(4), 2968-2994. doi:10.1108/ECAM-08-2024-1106.
[11] Espiner, S., & Apse, M. (2023). The effectiveness of safety signs in outdoor recreation settings: A research synthesis and annotated bibliography. Report: Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand.
[12] Wu, M. Q., Tahir, H. M., & Padil, M. N. (2025). Research on tourism signage design from the perspective of regional culture: Discussion on inheritance and innovation. Asian Journal of Research in Education and Social Sciences, 7(5), 137–149.
[13] Lee, C. H., Li, Q., Lee, Y. C., & Shih, C. W. (2020). Service design for intelligent exhibition guidance service based on dynamic customer experience. Industrial Management and Data Systems, 121(6), 1237–1267. doi:10.1108/IMDS-06-2020-0356.
[14] Yigitcanlar, T., Downie, A. T., Mathews, S., Fatima, S., MacPherson, J., Behara, K. N. S., & Paz, A. (2024). Digital technologies of transportation-related communication: Review and the state-of-the-art. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 23, 100987. doi:10.1016/j.trip.2023.100987.
[15] Hu, M., Duan, Q., Chen, N., & Pan, B. (2026). A virtual reality-based experiment on tourists’ choice of evacuation route. Tourism Management, 113, 105335. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2025.105335.
[16] Wattne, O. E., Aandalen, L., & Jansson, M. (2025). Wayfinding and navigation behaviours among pilgrim tourists on the St. Olav Ways in Norway. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 50, 100891. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2025.100891.
[17] Sylvia, A. (2020). Redesign of the signage system for visitors to the Gedong Songo Temple tourist attraction aged 18–23 years. Thesis, Universitas Katolik Soegijapranata, Semarang, Indonesia.
[18] Meutia, M. (2023). User Perceptions of Tsunami Evacuation Signs Based on Universal Design Principles in Banda Aceh City. Arsitekta : Jurnal Arsitektur Dan Kota Berkelanjutan, 5(1), 19–30. doi:10.47970/arsitekta.v5i01.394.
[19] Hantari, A. N., & Ikaputra, I. (2020). Wayfinding in Architecture. Sinektika: Jurnal Arsitektur, 17(2), 96–104. doi:10.23917/sinektika.v17i2.11561.
[20] Hunter, S. (2010). Spatial orientation, environmental perception and wayfinding (Design Resources Report No. D14). Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access, University at Buffalo, New York, United States.
[21] Milanes, C. B., Pérez Montero, O., Cabrera, J. A., & Cuker, B. (2021). Recommendations for coastal planning and beach management in Caribbean insular states during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Ocean and Coastal Management, 208, 105575. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105575.
[22] Leatherman, S. P., Leatherman, S. B., & Rangel-Buitrago, N. (2024). Integrated strategies for management and mitigation of beach accidents. Ocean and Coastal Management, 253, 107173. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2024.107173.
[23] Alotaibi, E., & Khan, A. (2022). Impact of Covid-19 on the Hospitality Industry and Responding to Future Pandemic through Technological Innovation. Procedia Computer Science, 204, 844–853. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2022.08.102.
[24] Madlenak, R., Berthoty, M., Chinoracky, R., & Stalmasekova, N. (2023). Outdoor advertising and visual pollution on selected roads in the city of Žilina. Transportation Research Procedia, 74, 101–108. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2023.11.118.
[25] Kim, T. W., Jang, J. A., Jeon, G., & Kim, J. (2024). Investigating Driver Preferences for Traffic Information Using Digital Signage and Road Surface Holograms. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 28(4), 1475–1488. doi:10.1007/s12205-024-1253-7.
[26] Asakawa, K., Kataoka, T., Sasayama, K., Nishikawa, H., Tanouchi, Y., & Oka, R. (2025). Effects of audio-visual interventions using left- and right-turning pictograms on the route selection of pedestrians without specific route preferences to alleviate congestion at a train station. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 18, 100670. doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100670.
[27] Shafique, A., Jiwane, A., Abid, N., Sareen, S., & Haque, M. (2026). Silent language of social equality: Signage in smart cities. Future Smart Cities, 73–93. doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-33667-6.00007-0.
[28] Huzzat, A., Anpalagan, A., Khwaja, A. S., Woungang, I., Alnoman, A. A., & Pillai, A. S. (2025). A comprehensive review of Digital Twin technologies in smart cities. Digital Engineering, 4, 100040. doi:10.1016/j.dte.2025.100040.
[29] Park, S., Kim, J., Kim, Y., & Kang, J. (2024). Participatory Framework for Urban Pluvial Flood Modeling in the Digital Twin Era. Sustainable Cities and Society, 108, 105496. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2024.105496.
[30] Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Luo, X., Pei, X., Li, F., Han, D., & Li, T. (2026). A survey on AI-empowered task-oriented sensing, communication, and computation in 6G networks. Computer Science Review, 60, 100899. doi:10.1016/j.cosrev.2026.100899.
[31] Liu, R., Becerik-Gerber, B., & Lucas, G. M. (2023). Effectiveness of VR-based training on improving occupants’ response and preparedness for active shooter incidents. Safety Science, 164, 106175. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106175.
[32] Scorgie, D., Feng, Z., Paes, D., Parisi, F., Yiu, T. W., & Lovreglio, R. (2024). Virtual reality for safety training: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Safety Science, 171, 106372. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106372.
[33] Xie, Q., Nie, X., Zeng, W., & Ma, C. (2025). Virtual reality-based experimental investigation of evacuation characteristics in ship fire scenarios with limited visibility. Ocean Engineering, 341, 122255. doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2025.122255.
[34] Lin, J., Peng, Z., Zhu, R., & Xue, Y. (2025). Formation and evolution of individual evacuation roles in building emergencies: A role-playing immersive virtual reality study. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 126, 105632. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105632.
[35] Ahmadi, M., Yousefi, S., & Ahmadi, A. (2024). Exploring the most effective feedback system for training people in Earthquake emergency preparedness using immersive virtual reality serious games. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 110, 104630. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104630.
[36] Liu, Q., & Liu, R. (2025). Virtual reality for indoor emergency evacuation studies: Design, development, and implementation review. Safety Science, 181, 106678. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106678.
[37] Rajabi, M. S., Taghaddos, H., & Zahrai, S. M. (2022). Improving Emergency Training for Earthquakes through Immersive Virtual Environments and Anxiety Tests: A Case Study. Buildings, 12(11), 1850. doi:10.3390/buildings12111850.
[38] Alshowair, A., Bail, J., AlSuwailem, F., Mostafa, A., & Abdel-Azeem, A. (2024). Use of virtual reality exercises in disaster preparedness training: A scoping review. SAGE Open Medicine, 12. doi:10.1177/20503121241241936.
[39] Kimura, R., Fukushima, A., Kajiwara, K., Sakuramoto, H., Yoshihara, S., Harada, K., Nakayama, T., & Ito, A. (2024). Scoping Review of Virtual Reality (VR)-Based Disaster Mitigation Education. Cureus, 74062. doi:10.7759/cureus.74062.
[40] Kamali Saraji, M., & Streimikiene, D. (2026). Evaluating digital technology applications and knowledge for climate action: A challenge-based decision framework. Journal of Innovation and Knowledge, 16, 101022. doi:10.1016/j.jik.2026.101022.
[41] Leng, J., Sha, W., Wang, B., Zheng, P., Zhuang, C., Liu, Q., Wuest, T., Mourtzis, D., & Wang, L. (2022). Industry 5.0: Prospect and retrospect. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 65, 279–295. doi:10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.09.017.
[42] Naito, R., Shirai, T., & Arikawa, T. (2025). Development of a Realistic Vr Device Using Photogrammetry and Clarification of Evacuation Behavior. Coastal Engineering Proceedings, 38(38), 204. doi:10.9753/icce.v38.management.204.
[43] Novaliendry, D., Syaputra, W. Z., Samala, A. D., & Marta, R. (2025). Design of a Virtual Simulation for Tsunami Disaster Education and Mitigation at Teluk Penyu Beach, Cilacap. Journal Europeen Des Systemes Automatises, 58(6), 1257–1263. doi:10.18280/jesa.580615.
[44] Arakawa, T., Obayashi, F., Kobayashi, K., Itamiya, T., Uno, S., Yamabe, S., & Suzuki, T. (2024). New Tsunami Evacuation Training Methods: A Tsunami Evacuation Training Application. Geosciences (Switzerland), 14(4), 110. doi:10.3390/geosciences14040110.
[45] León, J., Gubler, A., Catalán, P., Correa, M., Castañeda, J., Beninati, G., & Ogueda, A. (2023). Assessing potential tsunami vertical-evacuation practices: A study of four cases in Chile using virtual reality and GIS. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 98, 104098. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.104098.
[46] Wen, H., Liu, S., Zheng, X., Cai, G., Zhou, B., Ding, W., & Ma, Y. (2024). The digital twins for mine site rescue environment: Application framework and key technologies. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 186, 176–188. doi:10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.007.
[47] Ziari, K., & Dorostkar, E. (2025). The role of metaverse in urban planning: A geospatial framework for simulating sustainable and resilient cities. Sustainable Futures, 10, 100859. doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100859.
[48] Amri, I., Giyarsih, S. R., & Ruslanjari, D. (2024). Tsunami risk awareness, hazard warning knowledge, and intended evacuation behavior among beach users in Bantul, Indonesia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 109, 104594. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104594.
[49] Mahittikul, N., Wancham, N., Treeranurat, W., Saengtabtim, K., Laosunthara, A., Tang, J., & Leelawat, N. (2024). Examining the Factors Influencing Tsunami Evacuation Action Selection in Thailand: A Comprehensive Study Involving Local Residents, Non-Local Workers, and Travelers. Sustainability (Switzerland), 16(5), 2024. doi:10.3390/su16052024.
[50] Sharifi, A., Amirzadeh, M., & Khavarian-Garmsir, A. R. (2025). The metaverse as a future form of smart cities: A systematic literature review of co-benefits and trade-offs for sustainable development goals. Cities, 161, 105879. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2025.105879.
[51] Jauhiainen, J. S., Krohn, C., & Junnila, J. (2023). Metaverse and Sustainability: Systematic Review of Scientific Publications until 2022 and Beyond. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(1), 346. doi:10.3390/su15010346.
[52] Wiltenburg, R., Hurst, W., Mendoza, F. R., Krampe, C., & Tekinerdogan, B. (2025). Efficacy of Smart City Data Layers in virtual reality for emergency evacuation behaviours. Array, 27, 100457. doi:10.1016/j.array.2025.100457.
[53] Hayat, F., Adnan, M., Iqbal, M. S., Mohamed, S. E. G., & Tariq, M. (2025). Expert and intelligent systems for assessment and mitigation of cascading failures in smart grids: Research challenges and survey. Results in Engineering, 28, 107148. doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.107148.
[54] Ahmadi Zahrani, M., Ziaeian, M., & Bamakan, S. M. H. (2025). The metaverse and sustainable tourism: Opportunities, challenges and future trends. Sustainable Futures, 10, 101006. doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.101006.
[55] Chen, Z. (2025). Beyond boundaries: exploring the Metaverse in tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 37(4), 1257–1275. doi:10.1108/IJCHM-06-2023-0900.
[56] Laesser, C., Reinhold, S., & Beritelli, P. (2025). The 2024 consensus on advances in destination management. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 38, 101038. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2025.101038.
[57] Pressman, R. S., & Maxim, B. R. (2019). Software engineering: A practitioner’s approach. McGraw-Hill Education, Ohio, United States.
[58] Ayu, D., Wulandari, N., Alfin, A., Bahar, H., Arfananda, M. G., Apriyani, H., & Author, C. (2021). Prototyping Model in Information System Development of Al-Ruhamaa’ Bogor Yatim Center Foundation. Jurnal PILAR Nusa Mandiri, 17(2), 127–136. doi:10.33480/pilar.v17i2.2375.
[59] Tabrani, M., & Suhardi, S. (2022). Implementation of Prototype Method in School Payment Information System of SMP AL- Mushlis Karawang. Jurnal Teknologi Dan Open Source, 5(1), 64–72. doi:10.36378/jtos.v5i1.2234.
[60] Desriani, N., Puspita, H. E., Salsabila, A. R., Wulan, M. N., & Dewi, H. R. (2023). Web Based Accounting Information System Application Design with Prototype Method (Study on The National Flagship Cooperative of Prosperous Green Farmers). The 5th International Conference of Econmics, Business, and Enterpreneurship (ICEBE) 2022, 606–614. doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-064-0_60.
[61] Buladaco, M. Van, & Sabugaa, J. (2022). An Agile Prototyping Approach on the Design of the Purchase Request and Financial Tracking System. International Journal of Computing Sciences Research, 6, 913–924. doi:10.25147/ijcsr.2017.001.1.83.
[62] Farr, A. C., Kleinschmidt, T., Yarlagadda, P., & Mengersen, K. (2012). Wayfinding: A simple concept, a complex process. Transport Reviews, 32(6), 715–743. doi:10.1080/01441647.2012.712555.
[63] Rezaldi, M. Y., Suwardikun, D. W., & S.Sn, D. A. (2015). Disseminating Tsunami Threats through a Sign System for the Carita Coastal Area. JURNAL IPTEKKOM : Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan & Teknologi Informasi, 17(1), 51. doi:10.33164/iptekkom.17.1.2015.51-70.
[64] Xie, Z. J., Siek, H. L., Wang, Y., Wang, S. Y., & Keoy, K. H. (2024). Analysing Visual Information (Colour, Symbol) of Waste Recycling Through the Principles of Gestalt Theory: Closure, Similarity and Continuation. Paper Asia, 40(3b), 1–11. doi:10.59953/paperasia.v40i3b.106.
[65] Khamis, M. H., Azni, Z. M., Aziz, S. H. A., & Aminordin, A. (2023). The integration of gestalt theory to the graphic design. International journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 13(6), 2496-2502. doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i6/15449.
[66] Safitri, S. I., Saraswati, D., & Wahyuni, E. N. (2021). Gestalt Theory (Enhancing Learning through the Process of Understanding). At-Thullab : Jurnal Pendidikan Guru Madrasah Ibtidaiyah, 5(1), 23. doi:10.30736/atl.v5i1.450.
[67] Wilson, C. (2013). User interface inspection methods: a user-centered design method. George Newnes Ltd., London, England. doi:10.1016/C2012-0-06519-2.
[68] Jeffries, R., Miller, J. R., Wharton, C., & Uyeda, K. M. (1991). User interface evaluation in the real world: A comparison of four techniques. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, 91, 119–124. doi:10.1145/108844.108862.
[69] Lang, M. (2002). Usability Engineering. It - Information Technology, 44(1), 3–4. doi:10.1524/itit.2002.44.1.003.
[70] Vahlo, J., Kaakinen, J. K., Holm, S. K., & Koponen, A. (2017). Digital Game Dynamics Preferences and Player Types. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(2), 88–103. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12181.
[71] van Loon, A., Bailenson, J., Zaki, J., Bostick, J., & Willer, R. (2018). Virtual reality perspective-taking increases cognitive empathy for specific others. PLoS ONE, 13(8), 202442. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202442.
[72] Shaw, D. (1996). Handbook of usability testing: How to plan, design, and conduct effective tests. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 258–259. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4571(199603)47:3<258::aid-asi18>3.0.co;2-#.
[73] Mahatody, T., Sagar, M., & Kolski, C. (2010). State of the art on the cognitive walkthrough method, its variants and evolutions. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 26(8), 741–785. doi:10.1080/10447311003781409.
[74] Nielsen, J., Lewis, J., & Turner, C. (2006). Determining Usability Test Sample Size. International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, Second Edition - 3 Volume Set, 597. doi:10.1201/9780849375477.ch597
[75] Kim, Y. M., & Rhiu, I. (2024). Virtual Reality System Usability Questionnaire [Dataset]. PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA), Washington, D.C., United States. doi:10.1037/t93259-000.
[76] Gonçalves, L., Pinto, R., Gonçalves, G., & Dias, J. A. Immersive Training for Operator 5.0: A VR Framework for Collaborative Assembly Upskilling. Procedia Computer Science, 277, 2065–2074. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2026.02.244.
[77] Li, J., Jing, M., Xing, H., Zhao, H., Hu, Y., Zhao, Y., Jin, H., Zhu, Y., Su, M., & Li, L. (2025). Psychometric Validation of the Chinese Version of the Virtual Reality System Usability Questionnaire. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 18, 8081–8098. doi:10.2147/JMDH.S559547.
[78] Febiharsa, D., Patmanthara, S., Sudjimat, D. A., & Elmunsyah, H. (2025). Virtual Reality for Competency Assessment: A Usability Study of MUVE PCA with VRSUQ and SUS. Engineering, Technology and Applied Science Research, 15(4), 24344–24353. doi:10.48084/etasr.10669.
[79] Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020). A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Computers and Education, 147, 103778. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778.
[80] Clarke, J., Biwott, P., Rivera, C., Llorens-Salvador, M., Rocha, M., O’Neill, J., Ming, T., & Doyle, P. (2026). Solar-XR: Comparing the Usability of Touch and Raycast Gesture Input Techniques in an Educational XR Application. ICVRT 2025 - Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Reality Technology, 20–27. doi:10.1145/3787364.3787368.
[81] Reason, J. (1978). Motion sickness: Some theoretical and practical considerations. Applied Ergonomics, 9(3), 163–167. doi:10.1016/0003-6870(78)90008-X.
[82] Golding, J. F. (2006). Motion Sickness Susceptibility Questionnaire--Short Form [Dataset]. PsycTESTS Dataset. American Psychological Association (APA), Washington, D.C., United States. doi:10.1037/t11665-000.
[83] Golding, J. F. (1998). Motion sickness susceptibility questionnaire revised and its relationship to other forms of sickness. Brain Research Bulletin, 47(5), 507–516. doi:10.1016/S0361-9230(98)00091-4.
[84] Stanney, K., Fidopiastis, C., & Foster, L. (2020). Virtual Reality Is Sexist: But It Does Not Have to Be. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 7. doi:10.3389/frobt.2020.00004.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
